Taiwan firm to launch transparent cellphone

Serena Chen, Deputy Manager of Polytron technologies, Inc. displays the prototype of a transparent cellphone in Taoyuan City, northern Taiwan, on Jan 21, 2013. Polytron is reportedly hoping that the phone will be on the market by the end of 2013. [Photo/CFP]

Topic Khmer

Taiwan firm to launch transparent cellphone

Well-known King In Angkor , About Cambodia

• Jayavarman II(before 802)
  

Jayavarman II, when as a prince, was being held as a Chenla hostage to the Java court. Getting a chance to return to his motherland, he vigorously pursued for powers and became the king in 790 A.D. For the next 12 years, he carried out many battles around the regions and tried to seek a perfect home for his own kingdom.

When Jayavarman II became stronger, he decided to establish his capital Hariharala in the region of Roluos on the plain northwest of Tonle Sap.

In 802, Jayavarman II crowned himself for the second time, which marked as a starting point of the Khmer Civilization and the birth of the Angkor Empire. He made a breakthrough by proclaiming himself to be a universal monarch of Khmer in a ritual ceremony borrowed from Hinduism as a "god-king" or deva-raja. In the ritual, he worshipped god Shiva, a supreme Hindu deity, who was known by the Khmer for a long time as a god of protector. Being revered as a god-king, King Jayavarman II had psychologically asserted his divine kingship over the Khmer of his absolute authority and sovereignty. Moreover, it implied the declaration of Independence from Java Empire.

Adopting the Indian concept of divine kingship was proven to be a very clever strategy and served as a strong root for the steady growth of the Angkor Civilization. A rational reason as of why Jayavarman II adopted this concept could have lie in the fact that the Indian civilization had already been set as a successful example in Indian subcontinent. Every monarch or deva-raja from Jayavarman II onwards was highly revered with divine loyalty. The nation was strongly unified and later evolved into an empire.

Moreover, Jayavarman II did not select the location of his capital at random. He considered its strategic location in term of military. At that time, his potential enemies were in the south and in the east. Situated inland with thick rugged forests, his kingdom could be accessed only through river tributary of Tonle Sap lake. Being at the north of the lake, it meant that his force was at the river upstream which was an added advantage. This also had proved to be a right strategy for the existence of the Angkor Empire for over 600 years as it lost only one major naval battle against Champa in 1177.

After the establishment of Angkor kingdom, Jayavarman II actively waged wars throughout Cambodia and expanded his territory. He built a temple devoted to god Shiva at Phnom Kulen about 40 km northwest of Tonle Sap. King Jayavarman II reigned until 834 A.D.; "Jaya" literally means "victorious" and "varman" - "the protector".

• Yasovarman I (889 - 910 )

After succeeding the throne in 889 A.D, Yasovarman I built a new Angkor capital called Yasodharapura, located not far away from Roluos on the vast plain of Siemreap and about eight kilometers north of the the Great Lake Tonle Sap. At the center of this capital was the Phnom Bakeng Hill on top of which a temple was built with its galleries branching out in four directions to represent the heavenly residence of Hindu gods with the central Mount Meru and the other four sacred peaks.

Yasovarman I built one of the largest reservoirs in the Angkor Kingdom known as East Baray or "Yasohodharataka", with a length of 7.5 kilometers, a width of 1.83 kilometer and approximate depth of 4-5 meters. The water capacity of East Baray was estimated at 55 million cubic meters, and this water was used to irrigate over 8,000 hectares of farmland. Sanskrit inscriptions were found on the stele at each corner of the East Baray to praise the Hindu goddess Ganga, being revered in India as the river-mother goddess of the great Ganges River.

About half a kilometer south of East Baray, Yasovarman I built four ashramas which were the retreating residence of the serious religious believers. Apart from carrying out religious practice, each abbot of the ashramas was found to be somewhat like the manager of the king to help in controlling the water of the East Baray.

Today the East Baray is completely dry, and the four ashramas disappear. The Pre Rup temple was built on top of one of these ashramas

• Suryavarman II (1113 - 1150)

Suryavarman II, son of Ksitindradity and Narendralakshmi, Khmer king renowned as a religious reformer and temple builder. Under his rule the temple of Angkor Wat, the world's largest religious structure, was constructed.

Suryavarman II defeated rival claimants, Harshavarman III and Dharanindravarman I, to the throne and established sole rule over Cambodia, reuniting the country after more than 50 years of unrest. He was formally crowned in 1113, with his guru, the powerful priest Divakarapandita, presiding. The King was a religious reformer who blended the mystical cults of Vishnu and Siva, supreme Hindu deities, and promulgated Vaisnavism as the official religion, rather than Buddhism, which had briefly flourished under his predecessors.

Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu, was begun in the early year of Suryavarman's reign and was not finished until after his death. Surrounded by a wall and a moat, the building is decorated with sculptures portraying Suryavarman as Vishnu; he is shown reviewing his troops, holding audiences, and performed other functions of a sovereign. Suryavarman also sponsored the construction of several other temples in the style of Angkor Wat. He completed or at least decorated and furnished the massive temple of Wat Phu (in present day Laos), which was started by Suryavarman I.

In 1116 Suryavarman resumed diplomatic relation with China, which had been broken early in the reign of Jayavarman II, by sending tribute to Chinese Imperial Court.

From 1123 until 1136 Suryavarman II waged a series of unsuccessful campaigns against Dai Viet, the Vietnamese kingdom that had asserted its independence from China in 939. In 1128 he is said to have led some 20,000 soldiers against Dai Viet at Nghe An, but he was defeated and driven out. A few months later, Suryavarman's fleet of 700 vessels began a long harassment along the coast in the Gulf of Tonkin. Suryavarman coerced the kingdom of Champa to assist him in these efforts. In 1132 the combined forces of Cambodia and Champa again invaded Nghe An, but were driven out. In 1136 the Cham king, Jaya Indravarman III made peace with the Dai Viet, refused to join Suryavarman in a new campaign, which ended disastrously for him

In 1144 Suryavarman II invaded and deposed the Cham king, who he considered a treachery. He annexed Champa in the following year, and put his brother-in-law, Harideva, on the Cham throne at Vijaya. However in 1147, the Chams rallied around their new king, Jaya Harivarman I. When Suryavarman heard of the new Cham king, he sent Cambodia and Chams from Vijaya forces to conquer him. Jaya Haravarman I met them at chaklyang and annihilated the attacking forces. The next year, a larger army was sent against the Cham king; it was defeat at Kayev. With a series of military successes, Jaya Harivarman I marched northward seized Vijaya and totally destroyed the Cambodian and Cham forces at Mahisa. Harideva and his troops were all killed.

Suryavarman II died in 1150 in the midst of a new campaign against Champa. He received the posthumous name of Paramavishnuloka. As builder and religiou reformer, Suryavarman II rates among the greatest of Khmer kings. His foreign wars were not so successful.

Upon rising to power, Suryavarman II was a highly ambitious Khmer king. He was the great builder of the most impressive temple of Khmer, the Angkor Wat which is one of the World's Wonders with its magnificent architecture. Angkor Wat is a mountain temple dedicated to god Vishnu with five towers linked by galleries to signify the heavenly residence of Hindu gods. It is 65 meters high and the outer rectangular enclosure mesuring 1.5 km by 1.3 km which is surrounded by moat of 200 meters wide. In addition to its remarkable size, Angkor Wat also houses thousands of sculptures and stone carvings which amplify the delicacy of Khmer artworks. It took 37 years to complete the construction of this temple with over 50,000 workforce.

Apart from being a great royal builder, Suryavarman II was also a great warrior. He sacked several Champa states to the east and even waged an unsuccessful war with the strong Ly Dynasty of Vietnam. To the west, he conquered the Haripunjaya Kingdom, one of the Mon tribal states in central Thailand, and extended his power to as far north to the southern border of modern Laos and as far south to the border of Grahi Kingdom in Malay Peninsula which was around the present-day Nakorn Sithammarat, a southern province of modern Thailand. His territory expanded up to the border of the Pagan kingdom (ancient Burma) in the West.

Other monuments, in addition to Angkor wat, built during the reign of Suryavarman II are Beng Melea, Banteay Samre, Chey Say Tevoda, Thommanon.

• Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1219)

Jayavarman VII was born around 1120 or 1125, son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150 -1160) and queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. He married a very religious, strong-minded, and devote princess, Jayarajadevi, who exerted an important influence on him, both before he gained the throne and during the early years of his reign.

He was one of the most forceful and productive kings of the Khmer Empire of Angkor. He expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent and engaged in a building program that yielded numerous temple, highways, rest houses, and hospitals.

Though practically nothing is known of Jayavarman's childhood and youth, it is clear that during his late 30s and early 40s he settled in the neighboring kingdom of Champa, in what is now the central region of Vietnam.

When his father died, his brother or cousin - Yasovarman - appears to have claimed the throne, in which Jayavarman seems to renounce and to have gone on a voluntary exile to Champa. He left his wife and went to Champa alone.

In 1166 Tribhuvanadityavarman, a court official, usurped the throne of King Yasovarman. When Prince Jayavarman received word of a palace rebellion, he hastened to return to Cambodia - perhaps to support King Yasovarman II or to assert his own rights to the throne. But his was too late. When he arrived, Yasovarman was already dead and the usurper firmly seated on the throne. Jayavarman seemed unwilling to attempt to overthrow Tribhuvanadityavarman by force; instead he decided to remain in his homeland and to await an opportunity to assert his own claim to the throne.

Some 12 years later, when Jayavarman was in his late 50s, that opportunity came as a result of a Cham invasion in 1177, which brought about the demise of Tribhuvanadityavarman, the sacking of Angkor, and its subjection to foreign rule. In this situation Jayavarman organized a struggle for independence and in less than five years he succeeded in driving out the invaders and establishing his hegemony over all his Cambodian rivals.

Finally in 1181, at the age of 61, he was crowned a sole king of Khmer Empire and began a brilliant reign of more than 30 years, during which he brought the empire to its zenith, both in terms of territorial expansion and of royal architecture and construction.

Jayavarman VII was a warrior. The greatest military achievement of his reign - perhaps the greatest of the entire history of Cambodia - was the capture and sack of the capital of its rich and powerful neighbor, Champa, in 1190. His military activities also bringing southern Laos, portions of the Malay Peninsula and Burma under his control.

But increasingly he devoted his energies and organizational capacities to the kind of religious and religio-political construction projects that had been carried on by his royal predecessors. He built a large number of awesome new temples, including the Bayon, a distinctively Mahayana Buddhist central pyramid temple designed to serve as the primary locus of the royal cult and also as his own personal mausoleum; personal funerary temples of the Mahayana type, which were dedicated to his mother and father; and a series of provincial temples, which housed reduced replicas of the Royal Buddha. He rebuilt the city of Angkor Thom and rebuilt and extended the system of highways, which radiated outward from the Bayon and the royal palace and reached far into the provinces. In addition, he constructed 121 rest houses along these roads.

During his reign, the King built 102 hospitals, which he dispersed throughout his kingdom. Those hospitals were built in an attempt to improve conditions of the King's subject.

Jayavarman succeeded during his lifetime in creating a legacy that few monarchs in Khmer history have been able to equal. He was more than 90 years old when he died in around 1215.


"In 1190, King Sri Jaya Indravarman ong Vatuv made was against the King of Kambujadesa. The latter sent the Prince (Vidyanandana) at the head of the troops of the Kambuja to take Vijaya and defeat the king. He captured the king and had him conducted to Kambujadesa by the Kambuja troops. He proclaimed Suryajavarmadeva Prince In, brother-in-law of the king of Kambujadesa, as king of the city of Vijaya." Inscription referring to the capture of Cham city by King Jayavarman VII

Being a Khmer prince, Jayavarman VII was formerly a chieftain since the time of Yasovarman II and ruled over a Champa province or vishaya which was under the Angkor's authority. When the Chams seized the Angkor in 1177, Jayavarman VII determined to fight against the intruders and was able to re-capture the Angkor's capital Yasodharapura, where he ascended the throne in 1181. The war with the Champa kingdom did not terminate immediately but continued for another twenty years. In 1203, Jayavarman VII had a final victory and conquered the Champa kingdom.

Jayavarman VII was the last greatest king of the Angkor. Not only liberalizing and unifying the country, he was also a profound builder with the marvelous achievement in building the new capital of Angkor Thom, lying on the plain of Siemreap north of Angkor Wat. At the center of Angkor Thom is the Bayon Temple, famous for its distinct 50 towers, each bearing the large faces of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshavara (a lord Buddha) on the four sides. These faces are thought to be copied from the actual face of Jayavarman VII, and whose smiles are so gentle that it is often referred to as "the Khmer smile". This great king was a devout Buddhist of the Mahayana sect.

In addition to Angkor Thom and Bayon, Jayavarman VII also built other impressive temples and monuments such as Ta Phrom, Banteay Kdei, Neak Pean, and Sras Srang.

Moreover, Jayavarman VII constructed an extensive road network throughout his empire and thus linked all the major towns to Angkor. This efficient road system facilitated the transportation of agricultural products and goods. Along these roads, this great and benevolent king had also built 121 resting houses to accommodate the travelers and the officials, and 102 hospitals to accommodate the sick.

The reign of Jayavarman VII was marked as the peak period of the Angkor Empire as well as of the Khmer Civilization, which began to decline gradually after the death of this great king in 1219 .

Well-known King In Angkor , About Cambodia

[ Technology-News] FacebookFacebook Now Has More Than 1.06 Billion Monthly Active Users, 618 Million Daily, 680 Million On Mobile

Facebook Now Has More Than 1.06 Billion Monthly Active Users, 618 Million Daily, 680 Million On Mobile Facebook has today shared its financial stats for the fourth quarter of last year, and in doing so, has dropped yet another installment of its ever-impressive user statistics. As has been the case consistently over the past few years, Mark Zuckerberg’s Facebook has exceeded quite a few milestones, and the world’s most popular social network of all time has has now passed the 1.06 billion monthly active user (MAU) mark.
The social company had long been expected to pass the monumental billion mark before eventually doing so in October of last year, but the growth since then – some 60 million active users – is pretty startling in itself. As well as that, the number of daily active users (DAUs) averaged at more than 618 million through December 2012, with the number of monthly active mobile users hitting more than two-thirds of a billion, at 680 million.

Signups on a social network like Facebook are one thing, but keeping a user base interested enough to remain active month-in, month-out is something Zuck and his development team seem to have mastered down to a fine art. The 1.06 billion MAUs as of December 31st, 2012, was an increase of 25% year-on-year, while the number of DAUs equated to a 28% year-on-year surge.
But the real juice arrives in the progress of mobile. It is certainly a field Facebook had initial teething issues with, but since releasing version 5 for both iOS and Android, things have continued to progress. The number of daily active users on mobile devices such as the Nexus 7, iPad, iPhone and Galaxy S III exceeded the number of web daily active users for the first time in Q4 2012, and given the way the market is continuing to lean on mobile devices – particularly with social apps and services – the swing is certain to stay in favor of mobile indefinitely from here on in.

The portion of Facebook users logging in on mobile devices stood at around 40 per cent in 2011, and passed the 50 percent mark in 2012. Some commentators suspect that figure could rise to as much as 70 per cent by the end of this year, as users look to their smartphones and tablets for their fix of the world’s most populous social hunt.
You can follow us on Twitter, add us to your circle on Google+ or like our Facebook page to keep yourself updated on all the latest from Microsoft, Google, Apple and the web.

[ Technology-News] FacebookFacebook Now Has More Than 1.06 Billion Monthly Active Users, 618 Million Daily, 680 Million On Mobile

Architecture - Khmer , About Cambodia

The house of the local people in ancient Khmer was more or less similar to those found today in villages of modern Cambodia. It was elevated about two and a half meters above the ground with the wooden ladder and was built by wooden piles which supported the floor, the walls and the roof. The wall was made up of either the straws or the bamboo with the roof covered with the thatched leaves of dry coconut palms.

The architecture of the dignitaries' houses and the palaces was somewhat different from those of the laymen, and differed in sizes, layouts and dimensions. The materials used to built the house consisted of stronger wooden planks, generally made up of teakwood, and the roof was covered with tiles for the inner rooms and with thatched leaves for the outer corners. These differences clearly identified the classes of the people by which the laymen were not even dare to put up a single tile on their roof.



According to Hinduism, the gods reside in the five sacred mountains with central Mount Meru and these mountains are surrounded by the cosmic ocean. The structure of the Khmer temples mostly symbolizes the heavenly residence of the gods with five towers, called prasats. The central dominant tower or prasat represents the Mount Meru with four smaller ones, each at its corners, to represent the other four sacred mountains of the heaven. In some temples, there are galleries connecting the towers. The moat surrounding the temple symbolizes the cosmic ocean.

As the residence of gods, the temples were made up of more endurable materials such as the bricks, laterites and sandstones. Numerous stones were carved with artistic craftsmanship to portray the gods and the deities, the epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana, and in many instances, the important events of Khmer history as well as that of the king who was its founder. For the temples dedicated to Buddhism in the later centuries, the architecture is much less prominent with some stone carving related to the stories of Lord Buddha and his teaching.

In addition to the remarkable temples, the ancient Khmer also had showed its architectural genius by building large reservoirs and dikes which were essential in agriculture as well as for the survival of the people. The two largest reservoirs were the East Baray and the West Baray. The former one, built during the reign of Yasovarman I, was 7 1/2 kilometer long and 1 km 830 meters wide with the depth of 4-5 meter and holds up to 55 million cubic meters of water. The latter was almost twice larger, covering the area of 1,760 hectares with the depth of 7 meters and hold over 123 million cubic meters of water. These reservoirs collected the water from the nearby rivers through dikes and help significantly to prevent floods by collecting water from heavy rainfall during the Monsoon season. There were also smaller reservoirs, many ponds and moats which were constructed in the vicinity of the various temples, and thus further helped in water storage. This water was used in everyday life of the Khmer people, and irrigated to the farmland during the dry season. The Angkor Empire was therefore able to cultivate crops and rice two to three times in a year, resulting in its prosperity.

The extensive road system of the ancient Khmer enable us to draw a virtual map of the Angkor Empire during its peak. These roads were built by raising the earth as the pavement, however, most parts of these roads were lost but some vestiges remain. The Angkor being at the center of the civilization had its roads branching out in all directions. The northern route passes through Buriram and Phimai which are now in Thailand and divide into two branches, one to Vientiane, the modern Laos capital and another to Srisatchanalai and Sukhothai, the first capital of Thailand, while the southern one leads to Phnompenh and ends at Oc Eo in Mekong Delta of Vietnam. The eastern route heads to Kompong Cham until present-day Hochiminh City in South Vietnam where it curves northward along the coast up as far as Hue in Central Vietnam. The western route runs through Aranyapathet in modern Thailand until Chao Phya River Basin where Ayuthaya and Lopburi resides before extending westward until Maung Singh in Kanchanaburi near the Burma border.

Architecture - Khmer , About Cambodia

Kingdom Of Cambodia , About Cambodia

Motto:
(English: “Nation, Religion, King”)

Anthem: Nokoreach
Capital : Phnom Penh
(and largest city) 11°33′N 104°55′E
Official languages: Khmer

Government: Democratic constitutional
monarchy
- King: Norodom Sihamoni
- Prime Minister: Hun Sen

Independence: from France
- Declared: 1949
- Recognized: 1953

Area:
- Total: 181,035 km² (89th)
69,898 sq mi
- Water: (%) 2.5

Population:
- July 2006 estimate: 14,971,000 (63rd)
- 1998 census: 11,437,656
- Density: 78 /km² (112th)
201 /sq mi

GDP (PPP): 2006 estimate
- Total: $36.82 billion (89th)
- Per capital: $2,600 (133rd)

HDI (2004): 0.583 (medium) (129th)
Currency: Riel (៛)1 (KHR)
Internet: TLD .Kh
Calling code: +855
1 Local currency, although US Dollars are widely used.

The Kingdom of Cambodia (Khmer: Transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in Southeast Asia with a population of almost 15 million people, with Phnom Penh being the capital city. Cambodia is the successor state of the once powerful Hindu and Buddhist Khmer Empire, which ruled most of the Indochinese Peninsula between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries.A citizen of Cambodia is usually identified as “Cambodian” or “Khmer”, which strictly refers to ethnic Khmers. Most Cambodians are Theravada Buddhists of Khmer extraction, but the country also has a substantial number of predominantly Muslim Cham, as well as ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese and small animist hill tribes.The country shares a border with Thailand to its west and northwest, with Laos to its northeast, and with Vietnam to its east and southeast. In the south it faces the Gulf of Thailand. The geography of Cambodia is dominated by the Mekong river (colloquial Khmer: Tonle Thom or “the great river”) and the Tonlé Sap (”the fresh water lake”), an important source of fish. The low geography of Cambodia’s fertile areas means much of the country sits nearly below sea level, and consequently the Tonle Sap River reverses its water flow in the wet season, carrying water from the Mekong back into the Tonle Sap Lake and surrounding flood plain.Cambodia’s main industries are garment and tourism. In 2006, foreign visitors had surpassed the 1.7 million mark. In 2005, oil and natural gas deposits were found beneath Cambodia’s territorial water, and once commercial extraction begins in 2009 or early 2010, the oil revenues could have a “profound” impact on the future of Cambodia’s economy

· 1 Naming · 2 History · 3 Politics · 4 Administrative divisions · 5 Foreign relations · 6 Geography · 7 Economy · 8 Demographics · 9 Culture and society · 10 Transport · 11 Airports ·

1_Naming:

Cambodia is the traditional English transliteration, taken from the French Cambodge, while Kampuchea is the direct transliteration, more faithful to the Khmer pronunciation. The Khmer Kampuchea is derived from the ancient Khmer kingdom of Kambuja (Kambujadesa). Kambuja or Kamboja is the ancient Sanskrit name of the Kambojas, an early tribe of north India, named after their founder Kambu Svayambhuva, believed to be a variant of Cambyses. See Etymology of Kamboja.In the Khmer Mul script the official name of the country is (regular script), Preahreachanachâk Kampuchea, meaning “Kingdom of Cambodia”. Etymologically, its components are: Preah- (”sacred”); -reach- (”king, royal, realm”, from Sanskrit); -ana- (from Pāli āṇā, “authority, command, power”, itself from Sanskrit ājñā, same meaning) -châk (from Sanskrit cakra, meaning “wheel”, a symbol of power and rule).The name used on formal occasions, such as political speeches and news programs, is (regular script), Prâteh Kampuchea, literally “the Country of Cambodia”. Prâteh is a formal word meaning “country”.The colloquial name most used by Khmer people, is , Srok Khmae, literally “the Khmer Land”. Srok is a Mon-Khmer word roughly equal to prâteh, but less formal. Khmer is spelled with a final “r” in the Khmer alphabet, but the word-final “r” phoneme disappeared from most dialects of Khmer in the 19th century and is not pronounced in the contemporary speech of the standard dialect.Since independence, the official name of Cambodia has changed several times, following the troubled history of the country. The following names have been used in English and French since 1954. 1993 stamp showing the name État du Cambodge Kingdom of Cambodia/Royaume du Cambodge under the rule of the monarchy from 1953 through 1970; Khmer Republic/République Khmère (a calque of French Republic) under the Lon Nol led government from 1970 to 1975; · Democratic Kampuchea/Kampuchea démocratique under the rule of· the communist Khmer Rouge from 1975 to 1979; · People’s Republic of Kampuchea/République populaire du Kampuchea· · under the rule of the Vietnamese-sponsored government from 1979 to 1989; · State of Cambodia/État du Cambodge (a neutral name, while deciding· whether to return to monarchy) under the rule of the United Nations· · transitional authority from 1989 to 1993; · · Kingdom of Cambodia/Royaume du Cambodge reused after the · · Restoration of the monarchy in 1994.

2_History:

A Khmer army going to war against the Cham, from a relief on the BayonMain article: History of CambodiaThe first advanced civilizations in present day Cambodia appeared in the 1st millennium ce. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the Indianised states of Funan and Chenla coalesced in what is now present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. These states, which are assumed by most scholars to have been Khmer,had close relations with China and India.Their collapse was followed by the rise of the Khmer Empire, a civilization which flourished in the area from the 9th century to the 13th century.Though declining after this period, the Khmer Empire remained powerful in the region until the 15th century. The empire’s center of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals was constructed during the empire’s zenith. Angkor Wat, the most famous and best preserved religious temple at the site, is a symbolic reminder of Cambodia’s past as a major regional power.

After a long series of wars with neighbouring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by the Thai and abandoned in 1432. The court moved the capital to Lovek where the kingdom sought to regain its glory through maritime trade. The attempt was short-lived, however, as continued wars with the Thai and Vietnamese resulted in the loss of more territory and the conquering of Lovek in 1594. During the next three centuries, The Khmer kingdom alternated as a vassal state of the Thai and Vietnamese kings, with short-lived periods of relative independence between.
This article is part of the History of Cambodia series.
Early history of Cambodia

Migration of Cambodia:
Funan : (AD1 – AD630)
Chenla: (AD630 – AD802)
Khmer Empire: (AD802 – AD1432)

Rule over Isan:
Dark ages of Cambodia: (1432 – 1887)
The loss of the Mekong Delta
Colonial Cambodia: (1887-1953)
Post-Independence Cambodia
Cambodian Civil War: (1967-1975)
Coup of 1970
Khmer Rouge Regime: (1975-1979)

Mayagüez incident:
People’s Republic of Kampuchea: (1979-1989)
Modern Cambodia: (1989-present)
1991: UNAMIC
1992-93: UNTAC
2003: Phnom Penh riots

In 1863 King Norodom, who had been installed by Thailand, sought the protection of France. In 1867, the Thai king signed a treaty with France, renouncing suzerainty over Cambodia in exchange for the control of Battambang and Siem Reap provinces which officially became part of Thailand. The provinces were ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and Thailand in 1906.Cambodia continued as a protectorate of France from 1863 to 1953, administered as part of the French colony of Indochina. After war-time occupation by the Japanese empire from 1941 to 1945, Cambodia gained independence from France on November 9, 1953. It became a constitutional monarchy under King Norodom Sihanouk.

In 1955, Sihanouk abdicated in favour of his father in order to be elected Prime Minister. Upon his father’s death in 1960, Sihanouk again became head of state, taking the title of Prince. As the Vietnam War progressed, Sihanouk adopted an official policy of neutrality until ousted in 1970 by a military coup led by Prime Minister General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak, while on a trip abroad. From Beijing, Sihanouk realigned himself with the communist Khmer Rouge rebels who had been slowly gaining territory in the remote mountain regions and urged his followers to help in overthowing the pro-United States government of Lon Nol, hastening the onset of civil war.

French colonial buildings in Phnom PenhOperation Menu, a series of secret B-52 bombing raids by the United States on suspected Viet Cong bases and supply routes inside Cambodia, was acknowledged after Lon Nol assumed power; U.S. forces briefly invaded Cambodia in a further effort to disrupt the Viet Cong. The bombing continued and, as the Cambodian communists began gaining ground, eventually included strikes on suspected Khmer Rouge sites until halted in 1973. Estimates of the number of Cambodians killed during the bombing campaigns vary widely. The Khmer Rouge reached Phnom Penh and took power in 1975, changing the official name of the country to Democratic Kampuchea, led by Pol Pot.Pol Pot, the Communist ruler of Cambodia (which he renamed Democratic Kampuchea) from 1975 to 1979.Estimates vary as to how many people were killed by the Khmer Rouge regime. Depending on whether or not one includes deaths from starvation and subsequent deaths in refugee camps, estimates range anywhere from 1.7 millionto 3 million Cambodians. Many were in some way deemed to be “enemies of the state”, whether they were linked to the previous regime, civil servants, people of education or of religion, critics of the Khmer Rouge or Marxism, or simply offered resistance to the brutal treatment of the cadres. Hundreds of thousands more fled across the border into neighbouring Thailand.In November 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia to stop Khmer Rouge incursions across the border and the genocide of Vietnamese in Cambodia. Violent occupation and warfare between the Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge holdouts continued throughout the 1980s. Peace efforts began in Paris in 1989, culminating two years later in October 1991 in a comprehensive peace settlement. The United Nations was given a mandate to enforce a ceasefire, and deal with refugees and disarmament.

After the brutality of the 1970s and the 1980s, and the destruction of the cultural, economic, social and political life of Cambodia, it is only in recent years that reconstruction efforts have begun and some political stability has finally returned to Cambodia. The democracy established following the conflict was shaken in 1997 during a coup d’état, but has otherwise remained in place.

3_Politics

The current King of Cambodia, HM Norodom SihamoniMain article: Politics of CambodiaThe politics of Cambodia formally take place, according to the nation’s constitution of 1993, in the framework of a parliamentary, representative democratic monarchy. The Prime Minister of Cambodia is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system, while the king is the head of state. The Prime Minister is appointed by the King, on the advice and with the approval of the National Assembly; the Prime Minister and his or her ministerial appointees exercise executive power in government. Legislative power is vested in both the executive and the two chambers of parliament, the National Assembly of Cambodia and the Senate.On October 14, 2004, King Norodom Sihamoni was selected by a special nine-member throne council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the surprise abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk a week before. Sihamoni’s selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the new king’s brother), both members of the throne council. He was crowned in Phnom Penh on October 29. The monarchy is symbolic and does not exercise political power. Norodom Sihamoni was trained in Cambodian classical dance and is unmarried. Due to his long stay in the Czech Republic (then known as Czechoslovakia) Norodom Sihamoni is fluent in the Czech language.

The BBC reports that corruption is rampant in the Cambodian political arena with international aid from the U.S. and other countries being illegally transferred into private accounts.Corruption has also added to the wide income disparity within the population.

4_Administrative divisions

Main article: Provinces of Cambodia Main article: Districts and Sections of CambodiaMap of Cambodia Cambodia is divided into 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and four municipalities (krong, singular and plural). There are further subdivisions into districts (srok), communions (khum), great districts (khett), and islands (koh).
Municipalities (Krong):· Phnom Penh · Sihanoukville (Kampong Som) · Pailin · KepProvinces (Khett):· Banteay Meanchey · Battambang · Kampong Cham · Kampong Chhnang · Kampong Speu · Kampong Thom · Kampot · Kandal · Koh Kong · Kratié · Mondulkiri · Oddar Meancheay · Pursat · Preah Vihear · Prey Veng · Ratanakiri · Siem Reap · Stung Treng · Svay Rieng · Takéo Islands (Koh):· Koh Kong · Koh Polaway · Koh Rong · Koh Rong Samlon · Koh Sess · Koh Tang · Koh Thass · Koh Thonsáy · Koh Traolach · Koh Treas

Phnom Penh is the largest population center, with 2 million of Cambodia’s 15 million people. Mondulkiri, the hill province in the northeast bordering Vietnam, is the largest province by area but ranks lowest in population density.

5_Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of CambodiaCambodia is a member of the United Nations and its specialized agencies such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. It is an Asian Development Bank (ADB) member, a member of ASEAN, and joined the WTO on 13 October 2004. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural East Asia Summit.Following a return to political normalcy, Cambodia has established diplomatic relations with numerous countries; the government reports twenty embassies in the country including many of its Asian neighbours and those of important players during the Paris peace negotiations, including the US, Australia, Canada, China, the European Union (EU), Japan, and Russia.

While the violent ruptures of the 1970s and 80s have passed, several border disputes between Cambodia and its neighbours persist. There are disagreements over some offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam, and undefined maritime boundaries and border areas with Thailand.

In January 2003, there were riots in Phnom Penh prompted by rumored comments about Angkor Wat by a Thai actress wrongly attributed by Reaksmei Angkor, a Cambodian newspaper, and later quoted by Prime Minister Hun Sen. The Thai government sent military aircraft to evacuate Thai nationals and closed its border with Cambodia while Thais demonstrated outside the Cambodian embassy in Bangkok. The border was re-opened on March 21, after the Cambodian government paid $6 million USD in compensation for the destruction of the Thai embassy and agreed to compensate individual Thai businesses for their losses.

6_Geography

Main article: Geography of CambodiaClimate of Phnom PenhCambodia has an area of about 181,040 square kilometres (69,900 sq. mi), sharing an 800 kilometre (500 mi) border with Thailand in the north and west, a 541 kilometre (336 mi) border with Laos in the northeast, and a 1,228 kilometre (763 mi) border with Vietnam in the east and southeast. It has 443 kilometres (275 mi) of coastline along the Gulf of Thailand.The most distinctive geographical feature is the lacustrine plain, formed by the inundations of the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), measuring about 2,590 square kilometres (1,000 sq. mi) during the dry season and expanding to about 24,605 square kilometres (9,500 sq. mi) during the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of Cambodia. Most (about 75%) of the country lies at elevations of less than 100 metres (330 ft) above sea level, the exceptions being the Cardamom Mountains (highest elevation 1,813 m / 5,948 ft) and their southeast extension the Dâmrei Mountains (”Elephant Mountains”) (elevation range 500–1,000 m or 1,640–3,280 ft), as well the steep escarpment of the Dângrêk Mountains (average elevation 500 m / 1,640 ft) along the border with Thailand’s Isan region. The highest elevation of Cambodia is Phnom Aoral, near Pursat in the centre of the country, at 1,813 metres (5,948 feet).

Temperatures range from 10°–38°C (50°–100°F) and Cambodia experiences tropical monsoons. Southwest monsoons blow inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to October, and the country experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from November to March, with the driest period from January to February. Cambodia has two distinct seasons, the rainy season which runs from May to October (temperatures up to 40°C with accompanying high humidity), and the dry season from November to April (temperatures drop to 25°C to 35°C). Temperatures can reach 40°C by late April. The best months to visit Cambodia are November to January when temperatures and humidity are lower.

7_Economy

Main article: Economy of CambodiaDespite recent progress, the Cambodian economy continues to suffer from the effects of decades of civil war, internal strife and rampant corruption. The per capita income is rapidly increasing, but is low compared with other countries in the region. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related sub-sectors. Rice, fish, timber, garments and rubber are Cambodia’s major exports, and the United States, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, China, Indonesia and Malaysia are its major export partners.War and brutal totalitarianism in the 1970s created famine in Cambodia. Desperate farm families consumed their rice seeds and many traditional varieties became difficult to find. In the 1980s the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) reintroduced more than 750 traditional rice varieties to Cambodia from its rice seed bank in the Philippines (Jahn 2006). These varieties had been collected in the 1960s. In 1987, the Australian government funded IRRI to assist Cambodia to improve its rice production. By 2000, Cambodia was once again self-sufficient in rice (Puckridge 2004, Fredenburg and Hill 2006).

The recovery of Cambodia’s economy slowed dramatically in 1997–98, due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism also fell off drastically. Since then however, growth has been steady. In 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 5.0%. Despite severe flooding, GDP grew at 5.0% in 2000, 6.3% in 2001, and 5.2% in 2002. Tourism was Cambodia’s fastest growing industry, with arrivals increasing from 219,000 in 1997 to 1,055,000 in 2004. During 2003 and 2004 the growth rate remained steady at 5.0%, while in 2004 inflation was at 1.7% and exports at $1.6 billion US dollars. As of 2005, GDP per capita was $2,200, which ranked 178th (out of 233) countries.[19]

Angkor Wat, the biggest tourist draw of CambodiaThe population often lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from a lack of basic infrastructure. Fear of renewed political instability and corruption within the government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid, although there has been significant assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. Donors pledged $504m to the country in 2004, while the Asian Development Bank alone has provided $850m in loans, grants, and technical assistance.The tourism industry is the country’s second-greatest source of hard currency after the textile industry. 50% of visitor arrivals are to Angkor, and most of the remainder to Phnom Penh.Other tourist hotspots include Sihanoukville in the southeast which has several popular beaches, and the nearby area around Kampot including the Bokor Hill Station.

8_Demographics

Main article: Demographics of CambodiaNumber of inhabitants between 1961 and 2001 in thousands. Note the decrease during the Khmer Rouge years (1975–79). FAO Data,CambodiaCambodia is ethnically homogeneous. More than 90% of its population is of Khmer origin and speaks the Khmer language, the country’s official language. The remainder include Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham, Khmer Loeu, and Indians.The Khmer language is a member of the Mon-Khmer subfamily of the Austroasiatic language group. French, once the lingua franca of Indochina and still spoken by some, mostly older Cambodians as a second language, remains the language of instruction in various schools and universities that are often funded by the government of France. Cambodian French, a remnant of the country’s colonial past, is a dialect found in Cambodia and is frequently used in government. However, in recent decades, many younger Cambodians and those in the business-class, have favoured learning English, which is gradually becoming more widely spoken.

The dominant religion Theravada Buddhism was suppressed by the Khmer Rouge but has since experienced a revival. Islam (5%) and Christianity (2%) are also practiced.

Civil war and its aftermath have had a marked effect on the Cambodian population. The median age is 20.6 years, with more than 50% of the population younger than 25. At 0.95 males/female, Cambodia has the most female-biased sex ratio in the Greater Mekong Subregion . In the Cambodian population over 65, the female to male ratio is 1.6:1. UNICEF has designated Cambodia the third most mined country in the world, attributing over 60,000 civilian deaths and thousands more maimed or injured since 1970 to the unexploded landmines left behind in rural areas.The majority of the victims are children herding animals or playing in the fields. Adults that survive landmines often require amputation of one or more limbs and have to resort to begging for survival. In 2006, the number of landmines casualties in Cambodia took a sharp decrease of more than 50% compared to 2005, with the number of landmines victims down from 800 in 2005 to less than 400 in 2006.

9_Culture and society

Main article: Culture of Cambodia“Khmer Land” in Khmer writing, a local expression which refers to CambodiaKhmer culture, as developed and spread by the Khmer empire, has distinctive styles of dance, architecture and sculpture, which have strongly influenced neighbouring Laos and Thailand. Angkor Wat (Angkor means “city” and Wat “temple”) is the best preserved example of Khmer architecture from the Angkorian era and hundreds of other temples have been discovered in and around the region. The Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, the infamous prison of the Khmer Rouge, and Choeung Ek, one of the main Killing Fields are other important historic sites.Bonn Om Teuk (Festival of Boat Racing), the annual boat rowing contest, is the most attended Cambodian national festival. Held at the end of the rainy season when the Mekong river begins to sink back to its normal levels allowing the Tonle Sap River to reverse flow, approximately 10% of Cambodia’s population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere. Popular games include cockfighting, soccer, and kicking a sey, which is similar to a footbag. Notable recent artistic figures include singers Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Sereysothea, who introduced new musical styles to the country, and later Meng Keo Pichenda.

Rice, as in other South East Asian countries, is the staple grain, while fish from the Mekong and Tonle Sap also form an important part of the diet. The Cambodian per capita supply of fish and fish products for food and trade in 2000 was 20 kilograms of fish per year or 2 ounces per day per person.Some of the fish can be made into prahok (a Khmer delicacy) for longer storage. Overall, the cuisine of Cambodia is similar to that of its Southeast Asian neighbours. The cuisine is relatively unknown to the world compared to that of its neighbors Thailand and Vietnam and similar to other Southeast Asia cuisines.

Football (soccer) is one of the more popular sports, although professional organized sports are not as prevalent in Cambodia as in western countries due to the economic conditions. The Cambodia national football team managed fourth in the 1972 Asian Cup but development has slowed since the civil war. Western sports such as volleyball, bodybuilding, field hockey, rugby, and baseball are gaining popularity while traditional boat racing maintains its appeal as a national sport. Martial arts is also practiced in Cambodia, the most popular being Pradal Serey, which is similar to Muay Thai and also considered a national sport. Other styles such as Karate, Kung Fu and Taekwondo are rapidly catching on.

10_Transport

Motorbike riders in Phnom PenhMain article: Transport in CambodiaThe civil war severely damaged Cambodia’s transport system, despite the provision of Soviet technical assistance and equipment. Cambodia has two rail lines, totalling about 612 kilometers (380 mi) of single, one meter gauge track. The lines run from the capital to Sihanoukville on the southern coast, and from Phnom Penh to Sisophon (although trains often run only as far as Battambang). Currently only one passenger train per week operates, between Phnom Penh and Battambang.The nation’s extensive inland waterways were important historically in international trade. The Mekong and the Tonle Sap River, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including 3,700 kilometers (2,300 mi) navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 meters (2 ft) and another 282 kilometers (175 mi) navigable to craft drawing 1.8 meters (6 ft). Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, located at the junction of the Bassac, the Mekong, and the Tonle Sap rivers, is the only river port capable of receiving 8,000 ton ships during the wet season and 5,000 ton ships during the dry season.

With increasing economic activity has come an increase in automobile and motorcycle use, though bicycles still predominate; as often in developing countries, an associated rise in traffic deaths and injuries is occurring. Cycle rickshaws (”pʰʊt-pʰʊts”) are an additional option often used by visitors.

11_Airports

The country has sixteen commercial airports: Phnom Penh International Airport in Phnom Penh is the largest, it is the main airport in Cambodia; Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport is the second largest and serves the most international flights in and out of Cambodia. The other airports are at Sihanoukville, Ratanakiri, Battambang, Stung Treng, Koh Kong, Kampot, Kampong Thom, Kampong Chhnang, Pursat, Kratié, Pailin, Svay Rieng, Preah Vihear and Mondulkiri.

Kingdom Of Cambodia , About Cambodia

Khmer civilization , About Cambodia

Geography : Cambodia covers an area of some 181, 035 square km, which is bordered by Thailand to the West, by Vietnam to the East, by Laos to the North and by Gulf of Siam to the South. The country’s terrain mostly consists of low and flat plains which is mainly fertile by the Mekong and Tonle Sap river, whereas highland and mountains surrounded by evergreen forests lie at the North and South. Mekong river (Northeast and Southeast) and Tonle Sap (Great Lake, Central Part of Cambodia) which feed most of Cambodian population in terms of fish, crops and plant cultivation, meet the Mekong River at Phnom Penh, forming a lovely unique site for celebrating cultural and social activities every year and so for various industrialization sites. The Dangreks (Northern area), the Cardamons (Northern and Eastern) and the Elephant Mountains (Southern) provide the Kingdom with a great deal of benefits such as obscure wild monsoon which carries storms and cyclone, wildlife and various high class species of tropical trees, streams and waterfalls, and also hideouts for rebels throughout the history and other mysterious things which is worthy of taking adventure into. It is the vast celebration in the capital over three days. Water Festival also known Boat Race Festival draw in thousands of people from all walks of life to the banks of Tonle Sap and the Mekong rivers. The activity during the day is boat races said to date back to ancient time marking the victory of the Khmer powerful marine forces during the Khmer empire— and said as thanksgiving made to the spirit of Mekong river for providing the country with fertile land and a great deal of fish and so for its reverse flow. At the whole nights, people gather in the streets along the river and at the national parks to enjoy various music and dances performances and along the riverbanks to enjoy the view of the night display, the decorated lights on boats depicting the nation’s various identities and achievements. Every home at night is also seen a shrine in which pounded rice and local cake with coconut fruit are placed to please the spirit of the moon as in the name of Buddhism said to be home of the Buddha (according to Cambodian tale). Giant fireworks also display. It is a mass annual gathering bylocals and foreigners.

Religion : Thearavada Buddhism is the official religion in Cambodia which is practiced by 95 percent of the population– just like that of Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka. However, Christianity and Cham Muslim are being active and popular among a large number of population as well in the capital and provinces, showing a sign of growth. Daoism and Confuism are also commonly practiced among the Chinese people.

People : The population consists of ethnic Khmer at the largest, followed by ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese, Cham, Muslim and Hilltribes residing at far remote northeast. Most Khmers accounted for 80 percent are farmers growing rice. Vietnamese provide the country with skilled workers, while Chinese dominate most of business ownership. The hill tribes live at rural area in the northeast practicing slash and burn agriculture

Language : The Cambodian language is Khmer, which is inherited itself – and advanced in education with application of Indic languages Pali and Sangkrit from India. Also, the Khmer language is influenced by spoken and written Thai. Some technical languages are borrowed from French. However, English is commonly communicated in hotels and business compounds at present days. Climate & Seasons : Situated in the tropical zone, Cambodia is bathed in sun almost all year around. There are two main seasons: the rainy season and dry. Each season brings about a refreshing change. The humid, rainy season lasts from April to October. Temperatures range from 27-35 degrees Celsius. The hottest month is April when the temperature can reach 41 degree C these days. The cool, dry season lasts from November to March, with temperatures ranging from 17-27 degrees C. December to January is the coolest period at about 27 degrees C.

Arts : The Khmer (Cambodian) art is inherited itself together with influence by the ideas of Indians long before the existence of Khmer Empire in the 3rd century AD., Javaneses ( Indonesian) in 802 and French (1863). To deeply understand the Khmer arts, it is necessary to look at complex temples, particularly Angkor Wat, buildings, classical dances and textile (cotton and silk) industry, the products and display of which are widely available in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap. Apart from Angkor Wat which features uniquely arts of Cambodia, we recommend our tourists as follows while in Phnom Penh:- Cambodia Fine Art School inside the capital near the old Olympic Stadium and the Royal Palace and in adjunct to the National Museum is of a great resource for the teaching of various Khmer arts, thus a tour inside the schools would be useful for tourists to truly understand the teaching process of Khmer arts, particularly Khmer classical dances and architecture. Weaving Village located along the Mekong river— about 10 minutes away from the Mekong Island by boat, is seen impressive settings of the hand-made Khmer textile production which share the largest supplies of finest silk, cotton products in the Kingdom markets. The production is mostly done by women with patience and the weaving devices and process and the incredible role of women producing finest fabric products would greatly impress tourists.

Khmer civilization , About Cambodia

CORRECTED-UPDATE 2-Toyota to recall 1 mln vehicles for airbag, wiper glitches

Jan 30 (Reuters) - Toyota Motor Corp will recall nearly 1.3 million cars globally for two separate defects, including 752,000 Corolla and Corolla Matrix vehicles in the United States to fix airbags that could be deployed inadvertently, the automaker said on Wednesday.
It is the third Toyota recall since October to involve more than a million cars, and it comes as the company tries to recover from a damaged reputation following a series of recalls between 2009 and 2011 that were related to unintended acceleration problems.
An IC chip in the airbag control unit can malfunction when it receives electrical interference from other parts in the car, causing the airbags to deploy when it is not necessary, Toyota spokesman Naoto Fuse said.
Toyota is also recalling certain Corolla and Corolla Matrix vehicles in Japan, Canada, and Mexico.
The problem has caused minor injuries such as abrasions in 18 cases that have been reported, he said. Two accidents have been reported by customers outside Japan, although Toyota has not been able to confirm them, he said.
Toyota will add an electrical signal filter to the airbag control module to the recalled vehicles -- repairs expected to take an hour to hour-and-a-half, he said.
The spokesman declined to disclose the costs involved.
LIMITED FINANCIAL IMPACT
TRW Automotive Holding Corp has manufactured the airbag control unit in the vehicles, although the problematic chip is supplied by another company, an employee at TRW's Toyota office told Reuters.
He declined to say where TRW buys the chips from.
The financial impact from the airbag recall is likely to be limited, possibly costing Toyota about 5 billion yen ($55 million), said Koichi Sugimoto, a senior analyst at BNP Paribas in Tokyo.
Toyota may ask suppliers to compensate, he added.
"While this cannot be ignored, this amount is not going to dent Toyota's operations and share prices are unlikely to be impacted much," he said.
Separately, Toyota will also recall 385,000 Lexus IS and its series, including 270,000 Lexus IS vehicles in the United States over wiper problems, Toyota spokesman Fuse said.
The wiper arm nut of the front wiper in these vehicles may not be tight enough and the wiper may not work under certain weather occasions, including in snow.
Toyota will exchange the nut in repairs that will take about 30 minutes, Fuse said.
Toyota has been showing signs of recovery from the recall crisis and won back the crown as the world's top selling automaker in 2012 from General Motors.
In an effort to move past its safety crisis, Toyota proposed last month and got approval from a judge to spend $1.1 billion to settle one of the biggest U.S. auto class-action lawsuits over claims that millions of its vehicles accelerated unintentionally.
Toyota has not admitted fault in proposing the settlement.
As automakers including Toyota increasingly use shared parts for various models, the number of recalled vehicles have tended to balloon.
In October, the automaker also recalled 7.4 million vehicles globally to fix malfunctioning power window switches, and in November it recalled 2.8 million vehicles for a steering glitch.
Toyota is set to announce its October-December earnings results on Feb. 5. ($1 = 90.6500 Japanese yen) (Additional reporting by Norihiko Shirouzu; Editing by Daniel Magnowski and Ken Wills)

CORRECTED-UPDATE 2-Toyota to recall 1 mln vehicles for airbag, wiper glitches